Shichi-go-san

Tym co chyba najbardziej fascynuje nas obcokrajowców w Japonii jest specyficzne połączenie nowoczesności z przywiązaniem do tradycji, które stanowi nieodłączny element codziennego życia Japończyków. Społeczeństwo japońskie jest jednym z najbardziej nowoczesnych na świecie, podtrzymuje przy tym jednak kultywowane od wieków zwyczaje ludowe, co najlepiej widać podczas licznych świąt, czyli matsuri.

Słowo matsuri (祭) oznacza “święto”, “festiwal”, tłumaczone bywa również jako “festyn”, co w zasadzie dobrze oddaje jego charakter – matsuri bowiem przypominają nieco znane nam festyny czy też odpusty, towarzyszą im różnorakie parady, jarmarki oraz występy artystyczne. Matsuri mają charakter sakralny, związane są głównie z shinto, rdzenną religią japońską, czasami także z buddyzmem lub taoizmem. Wywodzą się z tradycji rolniczej – ich celem było pozyskanie przychylności bóstwa w uprawie ryżu bądź podziękowanie za obfite plony, obecnie jednak ich najważniejszą funkcją jest integracja i zacieśnianie więzi w danej społeczności.

W Japonii praktycznie nie ma tygodnia, w którym w jakieś części kraju nie odbywałoby się akurat jakieś matsuri. Mamy listopad i zbliża się jedno z najpopularniejszych matsuri, poświęcone dzieciom święto shichi-go-san (七五三), obchodzone 15 listopada (data ta wg kalendarza japońskiego uważana jest za najbardziej pomyślny dzień w roku; zwykle jednak uroczystości przenosi się na najbliższą tej daty niedzielę ). Nazwa shichi-go-san oznacza dosłownie “7-5-3″, a liczby te odnoszą się do wieku dzieci obchodzących to święto – 3- i 7-letnich dziewczynek oraz 3- i 5-letnich chłopców (chłopcy jednak coraz częściej świętują jedynie w wieku 5 lat).

Shichi-go-san wywodzi się z shintoistycznych ceremonii inicjacyjnych, obchodzone jest od okresu Heian (794- 1185), a jego obecny kształt pochodzi z czasów Edo (1603-1868).

Współcześnie jest to dzień, w którym rodzice prowadzą swe odświętnie ubrane dzieci do świątyni shintoistycznej, aby przedstawić je kami ( bóstwom shintoizmu), podziękować za dotychczasową opiekę nad pociechami i prosić o dalszą dla nich przychylność. Dlaczego akurat 3, 5 i 7 lat? Związane jest to z końcem, a zarazem początkiem określonych etapów w życiu dzieci. Niegdyś w wieku 3 lat przestawano dzieciom golić głowę i zapuszczano im włosy; 5-letni chłopcy po raz pierwszy mogą założyć tradycyjne spódnico-spodnie hakama, a dziewczynki w wieku 7 lat po raz pierwszy do kimona zakładają pas obi.

Najpowszechniejszym tego dnia widokiem są dzieci ubrane jak dorośli, w uroczyste tradycyjne stroje japońskie. Ubrania te nie służą jedynie uświetnianiu ceremonii religijnych, symbolizują bowiem także koniec i początek kolejnych etapów na drodze dziecka ku dorosłości. Dziewczynki noszą kimona, skarpetki tabi ( z oddzielnym dużym palcem) i tradycyjne japońskie sandały zori; 7-latki dodatkowo zakładają do kimona pas obi. Chłopcy z kolei ubierają hakama i krótki płaszcz haori. Ważne są także motywy dekoracyjne znajdujące się na odświętnych ubraniach – na kimonach dziewczynek widnieją głównie motywy kwiatowe, symbolizujące kobiecość, delikatność i pomyślność; na strojach chłopców często pojawiają się motywy związane z męskością, siłą i odwagą, np. smok, orzeł czy samuraj. Jako, że stroje takie zwykle są bardzo drogie, coraz popularniejsze staje się wypożyczanie ubrań. Poza samym strojem, wypożyczalnie takie zapewniają zwykle także uczesanie i makijaż dziecka. Wiele rodzin nie stań jednak nawet na skorzystanie z usług wypożyczalni – dlatego też, coraz więcej dzieci podczas shichi-go-san nosi odświętne ubranka w stylu zachodnim, przy czym częściej dotyczy to chłopców niż dziewczynek.

Ceremonie shichi-go-san zazwyczaj odbywają się w najbliższej świątyni shintoistycznej, niektóre rodziny preferują jednak świętowanie tego dnia w jakiejś szczególnie słynnej świątyni. Podczas ceremonii dzieci muszą najpierw oczyścić się ze zła obmywając rączki wodą za pomocą specjalnego czerpaka. Następnie wrzucają kilka pieniążków do świątynnej skarbony, dzwonią w dzwon i składają bóstwu pokłon. Kosztują też poświęconego sake, co ma podkreślać ich “dorosłość”. Po modlitwach rodzice wręczają dzieciom długie cukierki chitose ame, których spożywanie ma podobno zagwarantować 1000 lat szczęścia (chitsome znaczy “tysiąc”). Słodycze te sprzedawane są w torebkach z ilustracjami żurawi i żółwi, które są symbolem szczęścia i długiego życia.

O autorze:
Katarzyna Soszka

E-mail: katarzyna.soszka@hotmail.com

Why to visit Kazakhstan?

Several centuries ago a nation which called itself Kazakhstan was born in the heart of the Eurasia. It was formed by a nomadic population in the Central Asian steppes. Kazakhstan has a very long and interesting history beginning from the appearance of the Turkic population, being invaded many times by Chingiz Khan to the conquest of a nation by Russian Empire. According to the work of the modern Kazakh historians the Kazakh nation is the descendant of many nations, such as hunny, arii, turki. Unfortunately, there are no reliable written documents about the exact time of the formation of Kazakhs. The modern location of the country stretches from the Northern Caspian region to the Altai Mountains in the east. It has boundaries with Russia, China, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkmenistan. As one of the Tsars of the Russian Empire mentioned, Kazakhstan is the key to the gates of Asia. During the short history of its existence the country and the native population have garnered up many traditions and customs. However, the Kazakh culture was radically influenced by the neighboring strong nation of the Russian Empire. Nowadays, Kazakhstan is a big interest to foreign investors. Nevertheless, Kazakhstan would like to develop tourism as well. Therefore, the government would like to show foreigners a unique mixture of the European and the Asian cultures in Kazakhstan.

In most places of the modern world, people know about Kazakhstan from the movie called “Borat”. The movie was made by a comedian actor Sasha Baron Cohen who gave a different impression about Kazakhstan, which was meant to be comic, but most viewers received a false perception from the movie. The whole movie is about a Kazakh journalist, Borat Sagdiev, who came to America from the glorious country of Kazakhstan to meet Pamela Anderson. From this journalist, American people could learn about progressive country Kazakhstan where women have been allowed to travel by bus only since 2003. In addition, Borat was also saying that if he would make a bad film, then he might have been executed in his native land. After this movie all the people in the world, especially the Kazakh society, had their own opinion about the movie “Borat”. On one hand, the entire world was interested in Kazakhstan, however, on the other hand the whole country seemed to be weird. But generally, the whole situation is much better in the real Kazakhstan than it was shown in the movie.

In fact, Kazakhstan is one of the fastest developing countries in the world with its vast amount of natural resources. Besides possessing many natural resources, it is also an interesting place to visit. One of the most important questions for tourists might be how to get there and by which means of transportation. The answer is simple. It all depends on how much time and money you are ready to spend. The most convenient and fastest way of traveling is, of course, by plane. However, it is cheaper to get there by train. Another essential issue is the cost of staying or going for a holiday to Kazakhstan. In comparison to European nations the cost of living is lower. The basic reason why it is so is that the country is still developing and it has the substantial natural possessions of its own. So, spending short period of time would not require much investment.

As it was mentioned above, Kazakhstan is the result of the mixtures of two cultures: Eastern and Western. It can be experienced in different parts of the country. For instance, the former capital of Kazakhstan is called Almaty. There, just walking along the street you can hear the Kazakh native speech along with a fabulous smell of the national dishes from the nearest restaurants and then walking one block away, you find yourself in a little France with the real shinning Eiffel Tower. You can explore this city further finding out more and more amazing things like an ice-skating rink in the Alatau Mountains just near Almaty. It is also possible to ski and feel yourself as if you were in the Swiss Alps, but for cheaper price. It is also possible to ski in the summer time, but it is only for extreme ski lovers. There are also many other cities with so much to see and try. There is a very famous health and pleasure resort town which is called Kokshetau. The nature is just astonishing there: deep and clear lakes, rich flora and fauna, stones with ancient writings on them. Further we can move to the south of Kazakhstan to the city of Turkmenistan where you can thoroughly learn about the Islamic religion in the Central Asia by visiting one of the oldest mosques and mausoleums. You can see there historical monuments as well as the Central Asian architectures. After that we can transfer to the west part of Kazakhstan, where are mainly steppes and semi-deserts. There is also a city called Atyrau which is the oil and gas capital of the country. It is situated on the northern coast of the Caspian Sea. One of the uniqueness of Atyrau is that it is divided into Asia and Europe by the Ural River. You can be in Asia or in Europe just by crossing the main bridge. Not far from Atyrau, archeologists found the unique ancient city of Saraishyk which was buried under the sands by several centuries. The Saraishyk was one of the main towns for the Kazakh Khans. A lot of historical valuables were found during excavations, including Golden Armors of an ancient warrior which can be seen in a local museum. But besides the ancient and historical heritage, you can also see people still living in native Yurts in the steppes and breeding sheep and camels. It might be very interesting and exciting experience to ride a camel and try traditional beverages made of the camel milk. In addition to that, you will be able to eat national meals and dishes in the local restaurants.

In Kazakhstan, there are a lot of other interesting things to explore. So, if someone would like to find out more about the Central Asian countries and their cultures, he or she might want to visit Kazakhstan because it consists of the Asian and the European cultures. It means that the country could provide you with unforgettable experience of sightseeing, meeting interesting individuals, discovering something new and finally having fun and adventurous time.

O autorze:
Zarina Kalymova

US – Japan Apple Case.

World Trade Orgnisation (WTO) as a legal institution and an international body has to deal with many different cases and problems among the countries. All the problems connected with trade and its aspects have to be resolved in order to make trade between countries more effective. One of the most common cases are connected with the agriculture disputes. While 73 disputes settlements were brought to the WTO within 3 years, 17 of them were connected with agricultural problems. The Agricultural agreement was established and taken more seriously under consideration in 1986-94 in Uruguay Round. The agreement was established in order to achieve a better competition between the counties and avoid typical problems that occur by introducing specific commitments and establish a better market access for all the members. Despite the fact that WTO is able do deal with the problems much easier, there are still some of them that are significant for the agricultural trade. On of those cases is ‘an apple case’ which involves two the biggest world economies like USA and Japan. While considering the rising problems among those countries it is hard not to think about the reasons of this conflict. How the two biggest economies in the world cannot come to an agreement without help of a third part? In this essay I am going to present in details the situation that occurred and the reasons of the conflict. What is more, I am going to provide additional information about the case in order to show the different opinions and points of view.

While the request for consultation by the US was received on 1 March 2002 the conflict between US and Japan was already in progress. USA as a big and well developed country was looking for a new markets to export its apples world wide. Taking into account the Japanese dependence from USA after WWII the US wanted to enter the Japanese market unfortunately unsuccessfully. Since 1971 the US has been trying to enter the Japanese market with their agricultural products. Unfortunately, when in 1971 Japan finally opened its market for the US apples the situation was not so easy for the US apple growers and finally no apples were exported to Japan for 22 years. Although in 1982 the US tried to establish a positive relationship with Japan and asked about a market access for the US apples, Japan rejected the request using a concern about codling moth that can be transported to the country with the apples as an excuse. What is more, as the time passed other reasons were introduced by Japan like fire blight, the disease that attacks the fruit trees. In 1993 after years of disagreements the US apple growers made a formal complain to the U.S. Trade Representative. The USTR sent the letter to the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture with the information that those actions violate the Section 301 which deal with unfair and unreasonable actions with trade. The Japan had to do allow the US apples in Japan, what happened in 1995.

Unfortunately, for the US it was not the end of the problems. Despite the fact that Japan allowed the US apples into their market the restrictions and phytosanitary measures were very rigorous. Japan was concerned about codling moth and fire blight that can be transported with apples to Japan. The concern about codling moth ended after explanation that before the transportation the apples are storaged in a specific conditions, a dark room with almost no oxygen and a very low temperature, in order to ensure that there are no insects like codling moths. Although the US transport their apples all over the world and has to reach a special trade requirements, the Japanese came up with another concern about the fire blight – the disease that attack the fruit trees. According to this, Japan required a specific growing condition in order to secure the apples from the disease. US growers had to plant the apple trees at least 500 meters from pear trees and other plants in order to create a kind of security zone. All this growth specifications were needed in order to enter a Japanese market.

Because of the Japanese market potential, US apple exporters can gain a lot of benefits from the export. The USTR predicted that the US could gain over 75 million of dollars with a trade with Japan. The Japanese apple market is not so diversified. The prices of apples reach even 5 dollars each because of the Japanese specific demand for ‘delicious’ red apples. The US by entering the Japanese market would reach a huge niche.

When finally after opening of the Japanese market for the US apples in 1995, the US could celebrate its short-term success. The US apples with much lower price were a very interesting counterpart. But the success did not last long because of different customers preferences, the Japanese complained about the taste of US apples claiming that they are too sour.

As it can be seen from the short overview of the case the problem is getting more complicated along with years. The basic fact is a dispute of two countries – the US and Japan. The US previously was not allowed to import apples to Japan and later on had to face a specific requirements about storage and presence of pests. On the other hand, there was Japan which did not want to let the US’ apples into the Japanese market. It was explained that the problem was not with apples itself but with the diseases and insects that could have been transported together with the apples and could eventually jeopardize the Japanese environment and plants.

During the US accommodation of the Japanese requirements, which were strongly connected with storage and sanitization of apples, the US wanted to fulfil all the requirements in order to gain an additional market for apples. When the concerns about coddling moths were explained: the US’ apples were kept in dark storage for some period of time in a low temperature, without oxygen in order to get rid of coddling moths, Japan agreed on it so this part of a dispute was solved. However, the Japanese were really concerned about the pests, they required a 500 meters buffer zone between the apple and other fruit trees like peaches. The US agreed on that but only a few of its farmers were able to fulfil the requirements. Unfortunately, the US complained that along with fulfilling already harsh specifications Japan required additional inspections of the orchards by Japanese agents . The US applied all the requirements but they were very expensive and time consuming. What is more, finally the US growers realized that it was no longer worthwhile. Because of the Japanese harsh specifications the export of apples is obstructed and the US can suffer from material damages because of money loss. Moreover, the US research was made about the fire blight. Fire blight is a disease, more precisely is a bacterium, which attacks fruit trees and cause the blackening of the leaves. The US research proved that the phytosanitary requirements were fulfilled and that there were no cases for years about spreading the bacteria by shipping the apples. The US made a research and proved that the disease cannot be spread among trees even when placed from each other fwithin a small distance.

‘We harvested 30,000 apples at various distances from trees known to have fire blight and even some from the trees that had fire blight. We assayed 900 immediately after harvest and checked the rest after they had been stored until December, essentially the way exported apples would be treated. No fire blight bacteria were found in any of the apples, and no fire blight developed during storage, confirming the earlier work from the late 1980s.’

But even after this research Japanese did not lower their restrictions. Despite the fact that earlier Kenjinor Nakano, a spokesman for the Japanese Embassy in Washington ensuredthat it is not about the US apples but about the fire blight. He claimed: ‘What Japan needs is for the United States to prove that its apples are safe (…) This is not a political issue. It is purely a technical one.’ But the proof was not enough for the Japanese. This could be a reason for the US to accuse the Japan of protectionism.

What is more, Japan imported apples from different countries like North and South Korea and New Zealand. The US could feel discriminated because of the fact that Japan is importing apples from New Zealand under the same requirements and not allowing the US apples to come in. Similar situation was with Australia. Australian apples were allowed to enter the Japanese market with lower restrictions because of the claim that there is not fire blight in Australia and there were no case of this disease. What is more, the US did not consider the fact that other countries also has to face harsh Japanese specifications in order to enter the apple market in Japan and paying even a higher price for the entrance. The US, with fulfilling all the requirements and claiming that those all procedures are expensive, was still able to bring in the US apples at a lower price than Japanese Fuji apples which price was up to 5 dollars each. When it comes to the case of New Zealand, with fulfilling all the requirements the price of an apple was even twice as high as domestic ones because of high cost of quarantine. In this case the US can complain about Japanese protectionism and assume that Japanese high restrictions and banished apples is made just to protect their domestic market. On the other hand, it is hard to understand why the US is complaining about the barriers that are made by Japan when the US already knew that the apples were unsuccessful because of the different tastes in Japan. The Japanese market is a specific one. Japanese consumption of apples is not so popular in Japan. The Japanese society is a very perfectionist one what has to be taken under consideration when entering this market. Japanese Fuji apples are almost perfect with its red colour and a delicious taste. All of the apples are placed separately in the tissue paper on the shops’ shelves and are given usually as a gift or eaten as a dessert after a dinner. In this case when the Japanese are concerned about quality not about quantity, the US should reconsider the different strategy to enter the Japanese market. What is more, Japan as a ‘perfect society’ do not even consider their restrictions as harsh and high. The US can argue that Japan is ‘violating the international trade rules by blocking American apples without any scientific or health basis’ but on the other hand has to be aware that for the Japanese those specifications are very high. The government official in Aomori Prefecture which produces half of Japan’s apples said: perfection ‘We are extremely disappointed,(…) We don’t think the current inspection system is too harsh.’ In the country like Japan the US has to be prepared for the highest quality expectations – without any reason the most expensive beef comes from Japan. The Japanese are extremely concerned about the quality, everything needs to be perfect, there is no place for mass production. Things which have not been usual in Japan like apples will be treated with special ‘respect’. Like in the case of the Japanese most expensive beef in the world, where cows are fed with apples and watered with beer and regularly massaged, apples will not be treated as something usual. This cultural aspect can also be connected with the growing of apples. As it can be seen in ‘Washington State’s 3,500 apple farmers produce twice as many apples as their Japanese counterparts. But Japan has more than 10 times as many apple farmers, who raise their fruit on small plots and receive high prices for the produce, primarily Fuji apples.’ It seems to be more like cultural aspects. As mentioned before the difference between apple growers is more than 10 meaning that if the Japanese would like to, they are able to make big fields and mass production, but they do not do it. Of course there is a danger of using those excuses in order to protect the bad prospering of the Japanese apple market but on the other hand the Japanese prefer the quality instead of quantity and mass production of ‘ugly’ apples.

The strive for Japanese market by American is in this case too obvious. On the one hand it is clear that they want to be treated equally as other countries, what is more, this is ensured by the WTO agreement.

‘American farmers expect our trading partners to implement trade rules fairly, and that means using rules based on science,’ added Zoellick. ‘We’ve seen others around the world block our exports with non-science based barriers, such as in Europe with beef and biotech products, and so this decision will help us in our efforts to make sure American farmers are treated fairly.’

It is true that the decision of Japan was still negative after the research was made by the US proving that the fire blight is not present in apples sent to Japan and that the distance between health and infected trees do not influence spreading of the disease. In this case the US could complain and assume Japanese protectionism. On the other hand, the US still claimed that Japan do not want US apples to reach the Japanese consumers.

‘U.S. farmers send more than $390 million worth of world-class apples abroad every year, in particular from Washington State and Oregon. However, Japan’s severe fire blight restrictions have essentially blocked our apples from reaching Japanese consumers; for example, U.S. apple exports to Japan were limited to only $377,000 in 2001. Removal of Japan’s WTO-inconsistent import barriers would give a boost to U.S. apple farmers by providing the opportunity to increase U.S. exports.’

From a different perspective it looks like the US counts on a huge demand of US apples what is surprising after the situation when the US apples were brought in to the Japanese market and gained only short-term success and after this the sales suddenly dropped. The problem was the taste of apples which was too sour for the Japanese, who got used to delicious sweet ‘perfect’ apples, not the Japanese restrictions on US apples. What is more, the problems with sales of apples on the Japanese market was not only a case of the US, but also New Zealand which was shipping the apples to Japan under the similar conditions for 3 years. They also had to deal with the problem of marketing and mainly quality of apples. It shows that the Japanese market is very sensitive for the quality and very restrictive. If you want to be successful you have to fulfill the needs of very exacting customers. This can be the point why the US is trying so hard to enter the Japanese apple market. Japan can be a niche market for cheap apples and because of the population reaching over 127 millions it can be very beneficial for the US. What is more, the US can be attracted by the success in a cherry export to Japan. Because of a short seasonality the additional amount of cherries imported from the US were beneficial for both sides. What is more, the Japanese prefer domestic products and fruits but their ‘appetite’ for everything that is American made the cherry import very successful. The US cherries were of a very good quality and were a different type of cherries than those domestic ones. The quality of dark and sweet cherries was high enough to fulfill the customers’ tastes what caused a great success of US cherries in Japan.

This dispute has 3 different impacts on a global trading community. It has an impact on trade, environment, economics and geography. The trade impact as previously mentioned is a case of blocking the trade by not allowing US apples to enter the market. What is more, this caused material losses to the US which grew the apples under the Japanese restriction and later could not enter the Japanese market. After the US entering the Japanese market it was noticed that the case is not only about delivery of the apples but also reaching a specific Japanese taste. This case had an impact on different countries like France and Canada which would like to enter the Japanese market as well. What is more, the impact on environment has to do with a possible case of species loss. The situation of a disease carried by the US apples could later damage the natural environment in Japan and cause the loss of different species of fruits. In the case of an economic impact the problem of the Japanese specifications has to be considered. The US export around 100 million boxes of apples and around 9% are exported to Asia. By the additional restrictions which are higher than in other countries, the US has to change the restrictions of some of the produced apples to fit the Japanese restrictions meaning that there is an additional cost of production that the US have to have and that the exporting process is much more complicated. Geographical impact is quite similar to the environment one. Growing apples by the Japanese border where they cannot be brought into the market because of rising Japanese specifications.

Along with time and after asking the WTO to review the US complain against Japan in 2002 in 2003 the US could celebrate the victory.

‘WASHINGTON – U.S. Trade Representative Robert B. Zoellick announced today that the World Trade Organization (WTO) Appellate Body has upheld earlier panel findings that Japan’s import restrictions on U.S. apples are not justified and are in breach of Japan’s WTO obligations. Japan imposes severe restrictions on imported U.S. apples, allegedly to protect Japanese plants from fire blight, a plant disease. The United States, however, showed that there is no scientific evidence that mature apple fruit can transmit fire blight, and the panel and Appellate Body agreed.’

The high specifications were not based by the research but were made without real reason just to protect the domestic market how WTO Appellate Body agreed. And finally, Japan has to implement the agreements and open its market for US apples.

Different opinions mainly in the newspapers can be found about the dispute between the US and Japan. Many striking titles could be noticed at that time like: In Japan, It’s Chic to Eat American Apples ; Angered by Japan’s Barriers, U.S. Apple Growers Retaliate and U.S. Apples in Japan: The Shine Wears Off. What is more, lots of reports can be found. In most of the articles Japan is showed as a worst country that does not want to let the Americans’ apples into the market. There were also opinions of a US researcher that proved that the US apples are safe from fire blight. Interesting thing is that every source that has been found was connected with complaints of the US and was showing the situation only from the US perspective. There was no source that would show the dispute from the Japanese point of view meaning that the US were discriminated by Japan or the US it trying to show themselves as the runt of the litter.

Finally, the idea of WTO enforces their members to follow the rules that were established and are known by every member. No one was forced to follow those global rules and each country decided if it wants to be the part of WTO. This means that Japan had to be aware that by banning US apples is an act of breaking the rules of international trade. But all cases are different and if the two countries cannot trust each other and cannot talk and come to an agreement without the third part this means that something in this case is not right. This situation like in Nematode trade dispute could have been solved in a completely different way. As in Nematode dispute, about the insects from Canada that were transported to Europe and the USA, one country – the USA trusted Canada and allowed further import when Europe banned the export with Canada what caused a material damages for Canada. The world knows many different cases related to the US-Japan apple case like a Ballast case , Banana case and Codex case . What is more, we are considering here an importance of trade and environment which are the most important and which are connected to each other. Previously mentioned cases and the US-Japan apple case are all connected with the trade and environmental issue. The problem here is – what is more important to gain: more money or safety of our environment, our planet that we are living on. By our unconsciousness of the damages that we can do to our environment by shipping different species to different places we jeopardize our planet and the variety of species. Like in the apple case, the environment was the most important issue for Japanese when for the US the new trade market. In this case there were no disasters connected with environmental impact as it was in Ballast case about zebra mussels. Once we start the environmental changes we will not be able to stop them. The apple case shows the two different approaches to the world but we will never be able to get to know the real reasons of this conflict.

List of References

1. http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/14612/1/wp9802.pdf
2. http://www.american.edu/ted/apple.htm
3. http://www.american.edu/TED/ballast.htm
4. http://www.american.edu/TED/banana.htm
5. http://www.american.edu/TED/codex.htm
6. http://www.american.edu/TED/esp/japan-apple.htm
7. http://www.american.edu/ted/NEMATODE.HTM
8. http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/mar07/apples0307.htm
9. http://articles.latimes.com/1998/oct/30/business/fi-37549
10. http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/FTS/Oct05/fts31801/fts31801.pdf
11. http://geneva.usmission.gov/press2003/0716USapples.html
12. http://www.iht.com/articles/1995/03/13/subtopics_1.php
13. http://www.ipss.go.jp/index-e.html
14. http://www.ustr.gov/Document_Library/Press_Releases/2002/May/United_States_Files_WTO_Case_Against_Japan_Over_Unfair_Restrictions_on_American_Apples.html 15. http://www.ustr.gov/Document_Library/Press_Releases/2003/December/US_Wins_WTO_Appeal_on_Japan%27s_Apple_Restrictions.html
16. http://vn-education.com/forum/index.php?topic=357.0
17. http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/agric_e/agric_e.htm
18. http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds245_e.htm
19. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE2DC1038F934A2575BC0A965958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1
20. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE2DC1038F934A2575BC0A965958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2
21. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CEEDC143CF935A25752C0A963958260

O autorze:
Magdalena Zatorska

Studentka IV roku Marketingu i Zarządzania w Wyższej Szkole Biznesu-National Louis University w Nowym Sączu. Stypendystka programu Sokrates Erasmus w Danii. Od wielu lat zainteresowana Azją, w szczególności Japonią i wszystkim tym co jest związanym z krajem Kwitnącej Wiśni. Biegle posługuje się językiem angielskim, językiem rosyjskim w stopniu średnio zaawansowanym oraz językiem japońskim na poziomie podstawowym.
E-mail: mzatorska@wsb-nlu.edu.pl

International marketing strategy of Starbucks in Japan. Success or a failure?

From the early beginning the tradition of tea drinking was well known in Japan. Different kinds of tea especially green one can be easily bought everywhere. For the Japanese, tea is a traditional bracing drink during a day and because of a wide variety of tastes and the possibility to swamp it for a few times, using also a cold water, it became a good traditional drink.
Although it does not mean that there is no demand for coffee. Japan is the 3rd biggest importer of coffee in the world. (higheredbcs.wiley.com, 2008). Crowded places, constant rush and busy working conditions make Japan a good market for coffee industries. What is more, a high density of people makes the market encouraging even more. An example of a company that took advantage of this situation is Starbucks. Despite the fact that Starbucks is an experienced American company it experienced a few problems when entering Japan market which caused a mixed company’s success. Japan known for its specific approach to life was a huge challenge for Starbucks. Different tastes and not enough drinking alternatives, expectations and cultural differences like smoking and Japanese fluctuating economy made Starbucks to face real problems.

Starbucks opened its two first shops in 1996 in Tokyo. The first shop was open in Ginza districts and was prepared to give the Japanese customers experience of a typical US store. The second one was opened in Ochanomizu, the student’s area where all the colleges and fast-foods restaurants were located. The idea was to attract busy workers and students to come to Starbuck during their free time for a cup of coffee. The menu and names of drinks were the same as in the US. The company offered coffee, beverages, light snacks, sandwiches and company’s novelty goods like T-shirts and mugs. Taking into account a fact that the Japanese were not used to fresh made coffee, but mostly to instant coffee, the company believed that the Japanese society is prepared for the Starbuck’s arrival. (mgtclass.mgt.unm.edu, 1997)

However, Starbucks was not the first such company in this market segment. There were other coffeehouses competitors like McDonalds or Veloce, Tully’s and others. But one of the domestic company Doutor Coffee which started its business in 1980 and till 1996 had over 446 shops in and around Tokyo. Hiromichi Toriba the father of Doutor Coffee company launched the idea of a coffee shop while his travel to Brazil and also other European countries. (www.japaninc.com, 2003). His plan was a bang on in the market where the idea of coffee drinking was just coming. What is more, the Doutor Coffee as a domestic company knew the values and preferences that rule the Japanese society. The trend for smoking in Japan is well known. Everyone smokes and expect to be able to smoke in the restaurants, pubs and coffee shops. Toriba knew this trends and tastes and prepared Doutor for Japanese expectations. Once asked, one of the Doutor’s managing director answered:

“Starbucks is a good concept, but Japanese people want to eat proper food and smoke,” he says. “Plus, by having the shops a bit brighter, people think of Excelsior as a great place to go on a date. It doesn’t look so seedy.” (www.japaninc.com, 2003)

The quotation actually points out Starbucks’ problem to adapt the Japanese trends. Starbucks wanted to be as Americanized as it could be and it is not allowed to smoke inside the store. The company thought that Japanese will get used to it and despite that they will come and enjoy their coffee. Finally, it turned out that Starbucks became a very popular place among non-smoking females who wanted to drink their coffee in peace away from smoke and crowd. (www.euromonitor.com, 2003). But it also did not discourage men from visiting Starbucks. Moreover, the policy of Starbucks was to be everywhere and do not let the customer to cross the street. What is more, people were surprised by the amount and location of Starbucks’ stores. The stores are located very close to themselves – there can be one on the main street and the second by the corner. The reason for this situation is the amount of people coming to the store, where there is so many people that the queue is going beyond the store. In the review for CNN Hong Kong by Alex Frew McMillan, the Chairman of Starbucks Howard Schultz was answering a couple of questions about the company’s strategy and how the company sees its position on the Japanese market.

CNN: Are store sales higher in Japan because the population is more dense?

Schultz: The densities are one part of it. But I think the Japanese consumer was enamored from day one with the Starbucks brand and experience. We’ve become a No. 3 place in Japan, an alternative to work and home. We’ve been able to change the culture.

CNN: Some people blast Starbucks as a symbol of creeping Americanization of the world. What do you make of that?

Schultz: Starbucks serves approximately 230 million customers a week. The loyal customers visit our stores around 18 times a month. That puts it at the highest level of any retailer that we know. So the customers are the ones who vote and support the company. We’re in the business of buying and roasting the world’s best coffee, and opening up stores to satisfy our customers. (archives.cnn.com, 2001)

It seems to be that Starbucks is a picture of ‘New Japan’ – clean, non-smoking environment which attracts women around 30. The shops are a good alternative for people who want a taste of America without going to McDonald’s or any other possible fast-food. What is more, the company is choosing more expensive locations which are often crowded and will attract more customers. The pricing policy is in this case very important. Apart from domestic competitors like Doutor Coffee, Starbucks seems to have quite different pricing policy. When Doutor Coffee serves a wide variety of snacks, coffee and beverages for not a high price Starbucks prices are much higher but still affordable. Such high prices are probably an effect of choosing quite expensive locations on the main streets of the cities. Furthermore, Japanese Doutor Coffee have actually two different functions, one during the day as a coffee shop and the second, a kind of a pub in the evening. Japanese love going for a beer to a pub in the evening and being able to play karaoke. Doutor Coffee made by Japanese could not work differently. Native Japanese will know the best what a tired after work Japanese wants. Although on the other hand, they have Starbucks which do not go through this kind of shifting. The calm environment, non-smoking, cozy and just American Starbucks is a good stepping stone from the noise and crowd of a daily life. Starbucks is still popular because people are different not all of them are happy with the idea of spending the night in a karaoke pub and drinking beer, some of them look for calmness and rest from the reality.

Although Starbucks had a good performance the Japanese got used to the wide range of tastes of coffee as good as non caffeine drinks. Because of the globalization the taste of Starbucks’ coffee is the same in different parts of the World. But the Japanese as a society, raised on different types of tea, expect from Starbucks a wider range of offered drinks. The company because of customers’ expectations had to launch new types of beverages.

‘The company, of course, asserts that people go to Starbucks for the coffee, but hardly anyone else believes that. For one thing, a high percentage of its customers drink its noncoffee beverages such as Frappuccinos or teas.’ (search.japantimes.co.jp, 2004)

To fulfill customers’ expectations Starbucks had to invent something special, something that will satisfy the Japanese hunger for variety. As a response the company introduced localized products which were made only considering the Japanese market. The latest series that had been launched was ‘Kyoto Matcha Latte’ flavor which has actually nothing to do with coffee but shows how the company is trying to reach the market. What is more, in the country like Japan where time is money canned coffee was quite a big success. Canned coffee can be sold in every shop or a vending machine everywhere. Latest canned coffee Starbucks doubleshot. It can be served both cold and warm that is why it fits a higher number of consumers. The canned coffee is addressed not only to typical blue-collar workers called ’salarymen’ in Japan, people that are not typical Starbucks customers, but also when served warm – to core customers. (www.cscoutjapan.com, 2008).

‘There is a downside, naturally. We would hardly be the first to lament the ascendancy of “Frankenbucks” in terms of the blow to small businesses, local color and individuality of place, not to mention the ability to recognize good coffee. On the other hand, Starbucks’ rise has not been all bad. The company has introduced competitive pricing — some of those charming old kissaten are outrageously expensive — and, better yet, it has proved that people will patronize smoke-free places. That alone is almost enough to offset the cultural offense of inventing the Frappuccino.’ (search.japantimes.co.jp, 2004)

Furthermore, the Japanese not only love coffee but are also very interested in serving it. Many Japanese decided to study to be barristers or to be trained to make espresso. (query.nytimes.com, 2001). The Japanese as a society that strives for perfection will probably become masters in this field. The Japanese way of living is based mainly not on inventing but on adapting and changing things to make it more perfect. Because of it the company can gain a lot of ambitious and determined employees and coffee specialists. Furthermore, Japanese are known for their striving for perfection and the arrival of such thing like fresh made coffee made them a bit jealous. Japanese got used to instant coffee but something that can be fresh and tastes good attracts them to try something new. What is more, Starbucks helps them to try it by yourself by delivering and selling in their stores a special equipment to make coffee. It was a very good idea because every woman would like to have the same taste of coffee at home. The Japanese perfection and hard-working caused not only a higher demand for coffee equipment but also made people consider the future career as coffee specialists. Japanese already noticed a huge market potential for coffee in Japan. Big population and fast lifestyle attract the Japanese to drink more coffee instead of tea which is already well known. Coffee company’s still can see a big market in Japan but have to be well prepared and offer something more than just an average taste coffee.

Furthermore, Starbucks had to face another problem in Japan – the fluctuating Japanese economy. After an economic boom in 80′ the Japanese economy had to face a recession and what is unusual in this situation a deflation. The value of money was rising and all buying behaviors were stopped. People did not want to spend money, they were waiting for the higher value of currency to be able to buy more. When Starbucks entered the Japanese market Japan was still fighting with deflation which lasted for about seven years. What is more, after establishing its position on the market Starbucks still had to pay the costs of transportation of products and ingredients that Starbucks uses. Till now Starbucks was not able to establish any relationship with domestic suppliers and failed in localizing its business.

‘Starbucks Japan failed to localize its product. The capital for Starbucks Japan was supplied entirely from Starbucks headquarters in the United Sates, and the firm has not launched marketing campaigns that cater to Japanese sentiment, analysts said.’. (www.lulu.com, chapter 4)

What Choi Ik-jae is trying to highlight in his article is a Starbucks’ problem with localization. All the ingredients and other staff needed for running Starbucks Japan are delivered from the US while Starbucks Korea was very successful in doing it. Moreover, the problem of Starbucks was strongly connected with its expansion strategy. Starbucks Japan was focused on the quick expansion and growth in number of stores, around one per week. The industry analyst said:

‘The dull growth of the Japanese firm is the result of neglecting market research, dispensing with marketing strategies that could capture the hearts of customers, while just focusing on arithmetical growth.’ (www.lulu.com, chapter 4)

It is a fact that Starbucks decided to lead a quick and quite aggressive expansion in Japan. Because of good brand recognition in the US the company could be sure that Starbucks as a brand will be well recognized by the Japanese. With the Japanese ‘taste’ for everything what is western Starbucks could be sure about a success in Japan. Busy lifestyle, politeness and ‘taste’ for everything that is western made a company’s race for a Japanese market possible. What is more, Starbucks suffered because of bad prediction and small amount of information about the Japanese economy which is really unpredictable. If Starbucks manages to localize its suppliers in Japan as Starbucks Korea did the fluctuation of the currency would not be such risky as it was. While depending on the US suppliers Starbucks had to face a risk and it is hard to say why it was so. Probably focusing on the fast growth on the Japanese market Starbucks had no time to establish any relationship with domestic suppliers and its aggressive policy probably was discouraging most of the possible sources. What is more, Starbucks did not lead any advertising in Japan. Because of good brand recognition there was no need to do that but on the other hand the advertising campaign could be a good strategy to attract more people and make them aware of Starbucks company and its policies. All the economic factors that caused Starbucks difficulties were not able to be predicted but the company could be prepared for at least some of them. It seems that Starbucks decided to expand on the Asian market without any plan and preparation. The company decided that if Starbucks is successful in America and abroad it will be also successful in Asia. But the problem is that when Americans and Europeans are let say quite similar Asian countries are completely different. Different culture, values, behaviors and especially tastes for an international coffee company can be a huge problem.

Considering all the facts it can be seen that the success of Starbucks in Japan is quite mixed and depends on from what perspective it is analyzed. All cultural problems like smoking policy, fluctuation of economy and different tastes has an influence on the company. From the growing perspective Starbuck flooded the market extremely fast And without taking under consideration a couple of facts like constant dependence of the US suppliers the performance of Starbucks could be evaluated as risky but extremely good. Starbucks had an experience on other non American markets and is known worldwide. The expansion was quite risky; moreover, the company decided that Japan will welcome Starbucks with its arms wide open. Starbucks assumed that they do not have to localize Starbucks and its goods on the Japanese market – they were prepared for no objections. Starbucks thought that there will be a success and the Japanese will love Starbucks as they have loved French wine and McDonald’s. On the other hand, looking form a culture perspective Starbucks had to face a failure. The Japanese were willing to adopt some Starbucks policies and values but the Japanese tradition and eating behaviors finally won. Japan as a smoking society, (the trend has started in Japan and still is visible) will not abandon their habits for Starbucks and probably for any company. The trend of anti nicotine healthy lifestyle is not so popular. Bursting Asian economies show in this way their independence and economic growth. It is also a reaction for constant stress especially when talking about Japanese males. Furthermore, Starbucks did not consider a different Japanese tastes probably counting on the repetition of the success of fast food chains as McDonald. Japan is a country of rice, sushi and small very cute looking meals and what is important it is the country with the tradition of tea drinking. Starbucks did not take it very seriously and finally had to launch a new products especially for the Japanese market to remain competitive. Finally, Starbucks managed to satisfy the market and the new launched products were very successful. What is more, the company was not prepared for harsh conditions which Japanese economy prepared for Japan Starbucks. Years of deflation and unstable currency made a very dependent on its US suppliers Starbucks suffer from its ill preparation. Moreover, a Starbucks price policy and the location of its premises in very crowded and popular places raised the rental costs. All that factors had an influence on Starbucks international management, the policy of not localizing Starbucks in Japan made a company suffer from its own mistakes and that was easy to predict. Finally, the opinions about Starbucks international marketing strategy can be different. Because of the market growth the company was successful whe,n on the other hand cultural problems made the whole concept fail. The answer cannot be unanimous, there is neither a success nor a failure and with a clear conscience it can be said that Starbucks is a good example of company’s mixed success in Japan.

List of References

1. Belson, K., 2001, THE BUSINESS WORLD; As Starbucks Grows, Japan, Too, Is Awash [online]. Available from: http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A05E5DE103EF932A15753C1A9679C8B63 [Accessed 13 December 2008]
2. Degelmann, A., Zaleckyte, S. 2008, Aspirations of Starbucks in China [online]. Available from: http://www.ku-eichstaett.de/Fakultaeten/WWF/Lehrstuehle/IM/Teaching/Summer%20Term%202008/ism/downloads2/HF_sections/content/Aspiration%20of%20Starbucks%20in%20China-1.pdf [Accessed 13 December 2008].
3. Lee, H., 2003, Japan: a nation of coffee lovers [online]. Available from: http://www.euromonitor.com/japan_a_nation_of_coffee_lovers [Accessed 13 December 2008].
4. Lewis, L., 2003, Japan’s Coffee Kings and the Starbucks Effect [online]. Available from: http://www.japaninc.com/article.php?articleID=1218 [Accessed 13 December 2008].
5. Lewis Richard, 2006 , When Cultures Collide: Leading Across Cultures. Boston: Nicholas Brealey.
6. McMillan, A.F., 2001, Starbucks’ Schultz on being big in Japan [online]. Available from: http://archives.cnn.com/2001/BUSINESS/asia/10/10/starbucks.chairman/ [Accessed 13 December 2008].
7. Milner, R. 2008, Starbucks Japan goes local, gets canned [online]. Available from: http://www.cscoutjapan.com/en/index.php/starbucks-japan-goes-local-gets-canned/ [Accessed 13 December 2008].
8. Palmer, J., No year, Starbucks here tops Starbucks there. Team from Japan advised to do more image marketing [online]. Available from: http://www.lulu.com/items/volume_51/775000/775049/1/print/BUSINESS_ENGLISH_BOOK.pdf [Accessed 13 December 2008].
9. No Author, 2004, A Starbucks-saturated planet [online]. Available from: http://search.japantimes.co.jp/member/member.html?ed20041003a1.htm [Accessed 13 December 2008].
10. No Author, no year, Starbucks Coffee: Expansion in Asia [online]. Available from: http://higheredbcs.wiley.com/legacy/college/kotabe/0471230626/text_cases/starbucks.doc [Accessed 13 December 2008].
11. No Author, 1997, Starbucks Corporation (A) [online]. Avaliable from: http://mgtclass.mgt.unm.edu/Berman/Starbucks%20Stuff/Starbucks%20case.doc [Accessed 13 December 2008].

O autorze:
Magdalena Zatorska

Studentka IV roku Marketingu i Zarządzania w Wyższej Szkole Biznesu-National Louis University w Nowym Sączu. Stypendystka programu Sokrates Erasmus w Danii. Od wielu lat zainteresowana Azją, w szczególności Japonią i wszystkim tym co jest związanym z krajem Kwitnącej Wiśni. Biegle posługuje się językiem angielskim, językiem rosyjskim w stopniu średnio zaawansowanym oraz językiem japońskim na poziomie podstawowym.
E-mail: mzatorska@wsb-nlu.edu.pl

Hinduism vs. Buddhism

Hinduism and Buddhism are the largest religions on the East. For many Poles these religions are one big question mark. Both, Hinduism and Buddhism have many similarities, as well as differences. The purpose of this article is to show you that this religions are not the same but slightly different.

Both: Buddhism and Hinduism have large number of gods and both follow the same way to achieve Nirvana (a state of eternal happiness). Some people think that these believes are not religions, only more philosophical believes. The three main gods in Hinduism are Vishnu who is the sustainer; Brahma is the creator and Shiva the destroyer. They are referred as Trimuti. Most Hindu gods are associated with animals and therefore Hindus feel that being a vegetarian is vital. Moreover, even Cows are sacred in India and are worshipped as the divine mother, making eating beef taboo. Both involves meditation and prayer. In Buddhism, the believer need to understand the four noble truths which are: the truth of suffering, the truth of the origin of suffering, the truth of cessation, and the truth of the path. These describes the ways in which one must live. In Hinduism, there is a description telling believers about rules in live, wealth, prosperity, love and happiness. It is believed that following this steps let you achieve Nirvana.

Both Hinduism and Buddhism have restrictions to the amount of freedom a woman can possess. In Buddhism women got more freedom that in Hinduism. In Buddhism everyone has chance to reach enlightenment so the place of woman in Buddhism is an inferior one which stems from traditional, cultural, and social values of Asia. In Hinduism woman must always be cheerful and clever, even in the household. She needs to take care about home, meaning that she has to be cheerful and cannot get angry with the husband for doing anything. There is no possibility for woman to have more than only one husband, even if he dies. If she break this rule, she would be burned to death. Moreover, all things that the couple posses belongs to a man. Though both these religions have restrictions to women’s freedoms, a Buddhist female can do things more freely than a Hindu woman.

Both religions believe that avoiding violence is needed to achieve Nirvana. Buddhists have faith in compassion, charity and nonviolence while Hindus believe in pacifism and ahimsa, which is the avoidance of harm to people and animals. Furthermore, the believers still believe war is good in certain cases. In some cases they believe that fighting in a war belongs to their duties. Hindus as well as Buddhist believe that harming others is wrong, only if there is a war and it causes harming innocent peoples – the act of violent is justifiable. As we can see the way that Buddhist and Hindus look at the violence act are quite similar but we can observe some differences as well.

In both religions we can find information about reincarnation and concept of suffering. Buddhists have a faith of two extremes: one about pleasure and one about mortification. Both extremes are not so good, so believers should live the way to achieve the middle. Hindus believe in reincarnation. This will eventually lead one to true happiness or salvation. Reincarnation is mention both, in Hinduism and Buddhism.

Although Buddhism and Hinduism are similar, we should be aware of differences between them. Having two different religions is good, so then people can chose the one which mostly suit them, although some can argue that Buddhism has its roots in Hinduism.

Chindogu- genialne wynalazki czy japońskie śmieci?

Chindogu (z jap. dziwne narzędzie) to japońskie innowacje, które z założenia maja usprawniać proste czynności, tak proste, że w rzeczywistości ich udoskonalanie może okazać się niepotrzebne. Termin po raz pierwszy został użyty w 1991 roku przez Don Papia na łamach anglojęzycznej gazety “Tokio Journal”. Najbardziej znany projektant, a zarazem prekursor gadżetów to komik- Kenji Kawakami, który sam stworzył ponad sześćset różnych chindogu. Do najbardziej popularnych można zaliczyć: okulary ułatwiające zakrapianie oczu, masło w sztyfcie do smarowania grzanek, parasolka przymocowana do głowy, dzięki której mamy wolne obie dłonie lub dwustronna szczoteczka, która pomaga nam zaoszczędzić trochę naszego wolnego czasu.

Jednak nie każdy gadżet może nosić miano chindogu. Kawakami określił dziesięć zasad, które innowacja musi spełniać aby mogła dołączyć do zacnego grona japońskich wynalazków. Zaliczamy do nich:
1. chindogu nie może być używany w rzeczywistości, chociaż na taki wygląda,
2. musi być zrobione tak by działało,
3. musi przełamywać konwenanse,
4. musi mieć charakter codzienny,
5. nie może być sprzedawany,
6. nie może być opatentowany,
7. nie może być śmieszny,
8. nie może poruszać tematu tabu,
9. ma być apolityczny,
10.ma być areligijny,

Zgodnie z tymi zasadami, chindogu powinno być innowacją pozornie przydatną na co dzień, dlatego często nazywane jest ,,sztuką niepotrzebnych wynalazków”. Nie może poruszać tematów tabu, a także jego zaprojektowanie nie powinno być motywowane tylko wzbudzeniem śmiechu u innych. Chindogu to nie tylko gadżety, ale także manifest przeciwko społeczeństwu opartemu na konsumpcjonizmie dlatego też nie może być one sprzedawane, o czym mówi jedna z zasad Kawakami’ego. Ludzi szczególnie zainteresowanych Chindogu, zrzesza międzynarodowa organizacja International Chindogu Society z siedzibą w Los Angeles, która posiada już ponad 10 000 członków na całym świecie. Osoby zrzeszone sami tworzą własne projekty wg wcześniej wymienionych zasad swego prekursora. Niedawno ukazała się książka “101 Useless Japanese Inventions”, autorstwa Kawakami’ego w której zebrano najciekawsze wynalazki. W Polsce chindogu wzbudza różne skrajne odczucia; część osób uważa je za bezużyteczne śmieci, a część za genialne wynalazki. Ja natomiast uważam, że wciąż zbyt słabo znamy kulturę Japońską, żebyśmy ją mogli zrozumieć lub oceniać.

Breaking the domination of Guomintang – Lee Teng Hui presidency and the emergence of multiparty system in Taiwan

Lee Teng-Hui became Taiwan’s president in 1988. The twelve – year period of his presidency marked an important transformation in the island’s political system. My essay will be devoted to his role in the emergence of multiparty system in Taiwan. Besides of this, I’m going to show how the democratic system in Taiwan, in its current form, has been developed.

The death of Chiang Ching Kuo in 1987 didn’t stop the reforms. With Lee Teng-Hui being elected as a leader of Guomintang, increasing role of native Taiwanese in the island politics became evident. Year 1989 brought a new law which allowed new parties (e.g. Democratic Progressive Party) to be registered. Before that time opposition candidates could run only as independents. First Legislative Yuan elections since the abolishment of Martial Law were organized this year as well. Although KMT remained the dominant party with 60% support, DPP won significant 28,2% of votes and became serious alternative to the leading force, with the right to raise legislative initiatives. The result of the elections was a signal that society wants changes to be introduced but with caution and care.

In 1990 in the first direct presidential elections Lee Teng-Hui was chosen. He announced severe reforms, mainly in the area of fundamental political principles on which a state is based. The following year the elections to the National Assembly were organized. The election campaign of DPP was dominated by the necessity of the declaration of Taiwan’s independence. Its radicalism, and the lack of accent put on issues more important to the society led to a painful defeat of the party in those elections. This was an impulse which enforced changes in DPP political program in the more moderate direction.

The KMT wasn’t itself a monolith. What followed in 1993 was the disintegration of the opposition and the consequent creation of the New Party. Although it didn’t have relatively big influence on people’s support, but in the forthcoming years its presence on the political scene was important, as it could tip the balance on key votes. The party raised concerns about corruption of the state, obtaining of money through a dark, secretive, and corrupt method which is often referred to a “black gold” and poor moral level of main figures on the political scene. In 1995 elections to the Legislative Yuan support for KMT dropped below 50% level for the first time. KMT still remained a main force in this court but had to take into account other party’s interests.

The following year brought presidential elections, won by Lee Teng-Hui again. In his presidential campaign slogans of China historical and cultural unity appeared. He used a term “new Taiwanese” to describe all residents of the Island, regardless of their origin. He believed that everyone should take responsibility for the future of Taiwan. More importantly he had seen democratization as a power which would unite the nation. As a president Lee Teng-Hui later apologized for the massacre of thousands of Taiwanese by Nationalists troops in 1947, the so called “2-28 Incident”, which was an important gesture for native residents of the Island.

At this time KMT was losing support systematically, but the main test – presidential elections – was about to come in 2000. Main figure of the party – president Lee Teng-Hui decided not to run for reelection, so the party was represented by Lien Chan. He eventually failed and the winner of the election – Chen Shui-bian – for the first time in Taiwan’s history originated from Democrative Progressive Party. Chen Shui-bian attracted 39% of votes. The maturity of Taiwanese democracy was confirmed by the peaceful hand-over of the position by the outgoing president.

Lee Teng-Hui resigned from the chairmanship of the KMT in 2000. His successor Lien Chan returned to pro-Chinese politics, which was not well perceived in the view of public opinion and also Lee Teng-Hui himself (as a consequence of which, he was later expelled from KMT). It’s important to note that at that time Taiwan was facing the economic crisis. The internal situation of the party was not looking good as well. In such an atmosphere next Legislative Yuan elections were organized in 2001. The result of these elections changed the face of the legislative court. They were won by DPP, which became the major force, KMT came second – which showed their weakness on the political arena and surprisingly the third place was taken by the People First Party (PFP) organized around James Soong – former member of KMT.

To summarize, Presidential and Legislative Yuan elections of 2000 and 2001 confirmed that the democracy in Taiwan was developing in the right direction. With the departure of Lee Teng-Hui in 2000 the era of one party domination ended. What’s more the largest party found itself in serious crisis. On the other hand Democratic Progressive Party since its foundation was establishing its strong position on the political scene. Taiwan’s political system made a huge step forward since its first move toward democratization. Parties are competing in fair elections and multi-party system has developed. To conclude, one can quote Professor Samuel Huntington of Harvard University reflection on Taiwan and Singapore’s democratic system. Whereas democracy in Taiwan is bound continue after the death of Lee Teng-Hui, the collapse of Singapore’s political system is very viable after the death of its leader – Lee Kuan Yew.

The essay was presented during Scientific Seminar “Political and Economical Relations across Taiwan Strait” at Jagiellonian University
(17th December 2008)

O autorze:
Natalia Ożegalska

Studentka socjologii i studiów dalekowschodnich na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim. Rok akademicki 2007/08, spędziła na stypendium w ramach, którego studiowała język chiński na Beijing Foreign Studies University. Miłośniczka podróży i fotografii, niezmiennie ciekawa świata i ludzi.
E-mail: nozegalska@o2.pl

Artykuł opublikowany na łamach Asian Global Players- Organizacja Azjatycka

www.azja.wsb-nlu.edu.pl

Asian students at the Pole Universitaire de Vinci – Paris

When I came to the Pole Universitaire de Vinci as an Erasmus student, I met many Asian people there. I have seen that they are extremely helpful, cheerful and hard-studying. I would like to discover more about their countries and cultural differences. For that reason I asked two of them to answer on few questions. One of them is Kyu Wan Kim, aged 23 studying at Konkuk University in Seul, South Korea. The other person is Lin Sun, aged 23 from Southeast University in Nanjing, China.

Agata Madejska: How would you describe your country in few sentences?
Lin Sun: China is a big country, not only because its mainland but also because of population. My country is developing with a amazing speed. That is to say, it brings both good and bad effects. The good is more and more people in china living a good life in the cities and also that China play an important role in the global market. The bad aspect is the price of growing too fast, as the pollution and the gap between rich and poor people.
Kyu Wan: South Korea is located in East Asia known as one of the Four Asian Tigers. It has a population of almost 50million and 1/5 of the population is composed in Seoul (capital city).

A.M.: Why have you chosen France as a country to go for an exchange?
Lin Sun: France is famous for its reputation of romantic, especially for girls. We can also learn French here which is quite different from English. The fashion, the desserts, the culture here made us choosing France. I really enjoy my life in Paris. It is quite different from china on both: culture and social system. Life in Paris is much more peaceful, more clean and more leisure. In china, life is much more stressed because its developing and there are much more people around. I can take an example: shops are never closed on Sunday in China as I it is in Paris.
Kyu Wan: I chose France as a country to go for an exchange because I wanted to learn European culture and French. Also I had many French friends in my university who came as an exchange student, so they actually motivated me to apply to the program.

A.M.: Are there any important things that European should know before going to your country?
Lin Sun: I think they should know that China is not that old as they see in the old Chinese movie or drama. China is much more modern in cities as Shanghai, Peking or Guangzhou. In China, eating habit is quite different. We share dishes when eating. You can have every food on the table using your own chop-sticks. The other thing is that we never share the bills on the table. Usually, there will be one who pay all the bills. You can pay next time when friends eating together. It will be embarrassing if the host don’t pay for the whole bill. Chinese people are very hospitable. In another words, if you ask someone to eat lunch together, that means you will pay for the bill and also men usually pay for women’s bill. So you should get used to this.
Kyu Wan: Before you go to an Asian country, you must be aware of the culture respecting older people. For example, you should not eat or drink before the older person starts. Also when you are taking a metro, you must let children or older person to take the seat unless you don’t want to get blamed for that.

A.M.: Are there any things you like/dislike about European people?
Lin Sun: I haven’t found and dislike about European yet. Most of them are kind to us. They respect your ideas and you can feel as you are treated equal here.
Kyu Wan: I like the European culture of inviting friend to house whenever there is a party. (Because in Asia, we normally go out to pub or clubs). Also the buildings with sculptures and yellow lights on the street. But I dislike the streets in France because it is so dirty with dogs dung. Also the fact that public toilets have to be paid to use.

As we can see, there are many cultural differences between Asian and European countries we should know about. Both, Lin and Kyu Wan talked about respect for older person what is really important aspect in Asia. I am sure that there are many interesting things to discover about Asian culture. I hope that shearing a classroom with many Asian students will let me know the culture a little bit more soon.

O autorze:
Agata Madejska

Studentka drugiego roku Zarządzania w Wyższej Szkoły Biznesu- National- Louis University w Nowym Sączu. Stypendystka programu Socrates Erasmus we Francji – Pole Universitaire de Vinci, Paris. Właścicelka firmy Nails Secrets prowadzącej współpracę handlową z Chinami. Każdy problem jaki spotka na swojej drodze stara się traktować jako nową szansę. Uwielbia dalekie podróże, które pozwalają odkrywać nowe miejsca.
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Artykuł opublikowany na łamach Asian Global Players- Organizacja Azjatycka

www.azja.wsb-nlu.edu.pl

Burakumin w Japonii

Burakumin (部落民) wywodzą się od ludzi, którzy w przeszłości parali się zawodami uznanymi za nieczyste, takimi jak np. grabarz czy rzeźnik lub zajmowali się profesjami rozrywkowymi. Niegdyś izolowani ich w tokushu buraku (specjalnych wioskach), dlatego nazwa burakumin tłumaczona jest jako “hamlet people”, czyli “ludzie z małej wioski”.

Obecnie, stanowią oni największą w Japonii mniejszość (2-3 mln) i ze względu na brak charakterystycznych cech wyglądu, odróżniających ich od reszty społeczeństwa bywają także określani jako “niewidzialna rasa”. Czytaj więcej Mimo, iż konstytucja Japonii z 1948 roku zagwarantowała im pełną równość, to u progu XXI wieku buraku są nadal marginalizowani na wielu obszarach życia społecznego. Dyskryminacja ta dotyczy zarówno zatrudnienia (powszechną praktyką jest inwigilacja pochodzenia potencjalnych kandydatów do pracy), jak i wysokości zarobków, dostępu do edukacji, opieki socjalnej, a nawet kwestii małżeństwa (wynajmuje się detektywów w celu sprawdzenia pochodzenia kandydata/tki). Dyskryminacja burakumin sięga również sfery języka, w którym występują obraźliwe i krzywdzące ich określenia.

Już we wczesnych wiekach (II – III) odróżniano tę warstwę z nizin społecznych tatuażami Irezumi. Nosili je Hinin, czyli ludzie współpracujący z katami, grabarzami i rzeźnikami. Tatuaże pełniły ważną funkcję informacyjną – nie pozwalały na ucieczkę poza krąg własnego szczebla społecznego (tatuaż bowiem w tradycji japońskiej jest symbolem kary).Burakumin zakładali zatem małe społeczności, w których żyli w odosobnieniu. Ponieważ buddyzm i shintoizm potępiał ich jako “nieczystych” mieli oddzielne świątynie i obowiązywał ich zakaz odwiedzania świątyń nie- burakumin. Nie wolno im było także nosić nakrycia głowy.

Ponadto, burakumin nie przysługiwał przywilej nadawania imion i nazwisk, w zamian stosowano w stosunku do nich system oznaczania zwierząt, czyli przypisywanie numerów ewidencyjnych.

W okresie Tokugawa (1603- 1868) nie byli oni traktowani jako prawowici obywatele, gdyż nie mogli być podatnikami (podatek wówczas rozliczany był plonami ryżu, a burakumin nie mogli posiadać pól).W owym czasie nazywano ich także “wysuszonymi ludźmi wałów rzecznych” – ze względu na miejsce ich osiedlania się. Wioski burakumin nie były zaznaczane na mapach, a oni sami byli dyskryminowani w wielu innych sferach życia: mieli bezwzględny zakaz wchodzenia do świątyń i domów nie- burakumin. Mężczyźni byli zobowiązani do strzyżenia się na krótko, a kobiety były obarczone zakazem depilacji brwi. Byli oni również dyskryminowani w sądach, gdzie życie jednego z nich było równe życiu siedmiu normalnych obywateli. Wobec takiego stanu, byli umieszczani na samym dole hierarchii socjalnej stanowiąc margines społeczny.

Nadzieję na zmianę sytuacji burakumin miał przynieść okres Meiji (1868-1912), który w japońskiej historii określany jest często jako czas otwarcia na świat, w którym chciano zerwać z ciemną przeszłością, czyli dziedzictwem okresu Tokugawa. To wówczas powstały pierwsze dokumenty, które miały zniwelować nieznośny dla burakumin podział społeczny: Charter Oath z 1868 r., będący pierwszą obietnicą zjednoczenia narodu, a także kolejny – Emancipation Edict z 1871 r., nadający burakumin status społeczny i równość zawodową.

Jednak wspomniane dokumenty okazały się postępem jedynie z nazwy, gdyż w praktyce burakumin byli nadal marginalizowani. Przykładem może być rejestr mieszkańców, wprowadzony już w 1872 roku, który podtrzymywał “rzekomo obalony”, poprzednimi dokumentami system kastowy z okresu Tokugawa. W rejestrze podawane były informacje o pochodzeniu obywateli i początkowo każdy miał do niego wgląd – dopiero stanowcze reakcje burakumin spowodowały jego utajnienie. W latach 1896- 1902 sugerowano nawet, że najlepszym sposobem rozwiązania kwestii burakumin, będzie wysłanie ich na Tajwan i do Afryki Południowej jako osadników.

Po II wojnie światowej, a dokładnie w 1955 roku w Japonii powstała Buraku Liberation League (BLL), która uznawana jest za najważniejszą organizację zajmująca się kwestią burakumin. Głównym celem działalności BLL jest przede wszystkim wspieranie społeczności buraku, poprzez udzielanie im pomocy finansowej i podejmowanie działań na rzecz ich integracji społecznej z resztą społeczeństwa. Organizacja wspiera finansowo budowanie np. hal sportowych, basenów, tak by umożliwić kontakt dzieci o różnym statusie społecznym. Działa również na rzecz wyrównywania szans w nauce przez organizowanie dodatkowych zajęć dla dzieci burakumin.

BURAKUMIN W LITERATURZE, PRZEGLĄD STANU BADAŃ:
o De Vos – burakumin jako “invisible race”
o F. K. Upham – badania nad rozwojem ruchów i organizacji burakumin, opis strategii kyudan toso
o N. Gottlieb
- analiza zagadnienia ze względu na dyskryminujące słownictwo
- w książce pt. “Japanese Cybercultures” analizuje wykorzystywanie przez burakumin Internetu jako narzędzia walki z wykluczeniem i dyskryminacją
o Ch. Abe – opis źródeł wykluczenia burakumin, które związane są z religią i pojęciem nieczystości (kegare, shi-e, shinto, buddyzm)
o J.A. Gordon – opis dyskryminacji burakumin w sferze edukacji, wywiady z nauczycielami
o M. Hane – kwestia małżeństw burakumin z osobami spoza ich “kasty”

O autorze:
Natalia Ożegalska

Studentka socjologii i studiów dalekowschodnich na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim. Rok akademicki 2007/08, spędziła na stypendium w ramach, którego studiowała język chiński na Beijing Foreign Studies University. Miłośniczka podróży i fotografii, niezmiennie ciekawa świata i ludzi.
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Artykuł opublikowany na łamach Asian Global Players- Organizacja Azjatycka

www.azja.wsb-nlu.edu.pl

Asia: Managing Beyond Crisis

Up until now, the Boao forum for Asia Annual Conference 2009 had just finished its last program on “Boao Salon: Social Entrepreneurship” of the second day. And in tomorrow Sunday, April 19, the honored guests of Boao forum for Asia are going to continue discussing about managing beyond crisis of Asia in details.

Boao Forum For Asia (BFA) is a non-government, non-profit international organization which has become the most prestigious and premier forum for leaders in government, business and academia in Asia and other continents to share visions on the most pressing issues in this dynamic region and the world at large. BFA was initiated in 1998 by Fidel V. Ramos, former President of the Philippines, Bob Hawke, former Prime Minister of Australia, and Morihiro Hosokawa, former Prime Minister of Japan. Since inaugurated in February 2001, BFA is committed to promoting regional economic integration and bringing Asian countries even closer to their development goals. The permanent site of the Annual Conference of BFA is located in Boao, Hainan province, China.

There are more than 1,000 delegates from all around the world of different domains present in this 2009 forum, including states leaders from 12 countries. During the forum of 17th-19th, delegates are expected to discuss about how to deal with the crisis in details encircle with the theme this year – Asia: Managing Beyond Crisis. In the mean time, this forum will be the first time that regard emerging economies as a priority in the General Assembly to discuss the contents of concern and focus on how can emerging economies play a role in the international financial system reform; how to face the international trade and investment, as well as energy and raw materials prices fluctuations in the formulation of business strategies in emerging markets; small and medium-sized talent; financing and development strategy; and how to look on private equity and venture capital in emerging markets.

During the forum, former President of the United States, George W. Bush gave a keynote speech on The U.S., Asia and the Future in the 18th Dinner Session. What is more, former President Bush also met people from both business and government to discuss his time in office and exchange views on the world development.

As for China side, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao gave a speech in the morning of 18th, emphasized that China is focusing on expending domestic demand and struggle to maintain the fast growth of investment and stimulate consumption to adjust the structure of domestic demand and external demand. According to Wen, by forming a growth pattern of domestic demand-oriented and making use of the external demand to boost the economic growth we can lead the change of China’s economy to a more balanced development pattern.

Another shining point of BFA this year is Confidence. A survey called “BFA Asia Economic Confidence Index” is carried out by BFA and QQ.com with the aim of knowing more about the challenge and recovery of the Asian economy, the tendency of the financial market. Mr. Long Yongtu, Secretary General of BFA said that this survey will help us conclude an objective judgment of the current financial crisis and hope all the guests of BFA could participate in this survey.

So far, the forum has continued for 2 days and the last day in tomorrow, the delegates will focus on the programs of Price Fluctuations and Emerging Market Strategies; Managing in Periods of Volatility; Private Equity & Venture Capital: Opportunities in Emerging Markets and Best Practice of Doing Business in Emerging Markets. In the luncheon session, discussion about Time for a Green New Deal will be carried out. After that, there will be TV Forum: The China Factor in the New Globalized Era; International Financial Crisis and Cross-Straits Financial Cooperation; and Financial Crisis and International Tourism. TV debate named The Next Competitive Edge of Asia will hold between 17:00-18:00. Following is the Press Conference. Finally, the 3 days Boao Forum For Asia Annual Conference 2009 will end with a Farewell Party.

Resources:
1. http://www.boaoforum.org/html/home.asp
2. http://finance.qq.com/zt/2009/boao/index.htm

O autorze:
Xinpei Deng

ur. w listopadzie 1988 r., pochodząca z Kantonu, ukończyła Zhanjiang No.1 Middle School w czerwcu 2007 r. Obecnie studentka pierwszego roku Wyższej Szkoły Biznesu- National- Louis University w Nowym Sączu na kierunku Management. W Zhanjiang No.1 Middle School odpowiedzialna za organizację uroczystości obchodów Nowego Roku, a także ogłoszeń angielskojęzycznych. Laureatka konkursu organizowanego przez Centralną Telewizję Chińską, CCTV na udział w przedstawieniach kulturalnych podczas ceremonii świętowania Chińskiego Nowego Roku. W Asian Global Players odpowiedzialna za tłumaczenia oraz współpracę z uniwersytetami w Chinach.
E-mail: xdeng@wsb-nlu.edu.pl

Artykuł opublikowany na łamach Asian Global Players- Organizacja Azjatycka

www.azja.wsb-nlu.edu.pl